Home · KS3 · iLowerSecondary English · Grammar lab

Grammar lab

A complete grammar, punctuation and spelling skill-builder for the LEH11 achievement test. Precise definitions, original examples and a self-test to sharpen accuracy in your own writing and to read writers’ choices closely.

Why this matters

For your writing

WAO2 (17.1% of the qualification): Communicate meaning in writing through the use of accurate grammar, punctuation and spelling.

Use a range of sentences and sentence openings for effect and impact.
Use synonyms to achieve cohesion and clarity in writing.
Select a range of vocabulary for clarity and specific impact.
Use capital letters, end punctuation, commas, speech marks and apostrophes correctly, with accuracy and confidence, for effect and impact.
Spell largely accurately with only occasional errors in less common words.

For your reading

RAO4 (18.6% of the qualification): Explore writers' use of grammatical and literary language at word and sentence level.

W9.3J - Use a wide range of grammatical terminology correctly and with confidence.

Word classes

Every word in English belongs to a word class. Naming them precisely is the foundation of analysing a writer’s choices and controlling your own sentences.

Nouns

A noun names a person, place, thing, idea or feeling. Nouns can be common, proper, abstract or collective.

Common noun

A common noun names a general type of person, place or thing rather than a specific one, and is not capitalised unless it begins a sentence.

The librarian stacked every returned book onto a wooden trolley.
A cold wind chased the leaves across the empty playground.

Common nouns here: librarian, book, trolley, wind, leaves, playground.

Proper noun

A proper noun names one specific person, place, organisation or title and always begins with a capital letter.

Priya travelled from Manchester to visit the British Library on Saturday.
The charity Riverwatch cleaned the banks of the River Tame in March.

Proper nouns: Priya, Manchester, British Library, Saturday, Riverwatch, River Tame, March.

Abstract noun

An abstract noun names something that cannot be touched or seen, such as an idea, quality, state or emotion.

Her courage during the storm earned the crew’s lasting respect.
Honesty matters more to him than the comfort of an easy answer.

Abstract nouns: courage, respect, honesty, comfort.

Collective noun

A collective noun names a group of people, animals or things considered as a single unit.

A flock of starlings twisted above the harbour like dark smoke.
The committee finally agreed on a single date for the fair.

Collective nouns: flock, committee. They usually take a singular verb in UK English when treated as one unit.

Pronouns

A pronoun stands in place of a noun to avoid repetition. Types include personal, possessive, relative, demonstrative and reflexive.

Personal pronoun

A personal pronoun replaces the name of a person or thing (for example I, you, he, she, it, we, they).

When Daniel finished the race, he could barely lift his arms.
The twins laughed because they had given identical answers.

Personal pronouns: he, they (replacing Daniel and the twins).

Possessive pronoun

A possessive pronoun shows ownership and stands alone without a following noun (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs).

That muddy bicycle by the gate is definitely mine.
We compared the two essays and decided ours was clearer.

Possessive pronouns: mine, ours. Note: no apostrophe is ever used in these words.

Relative pronoun

A relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that) introduces a relative clause that gives more information about a noun.

The scientist who discovered the leak alerted the whole village.
I returned the umbrella that I had borrowed last winter.

Relative pronouns: who, that. Use "who" for people and "which" for things; "that" works for either in defining clauses.

Reflexive pronoun

A reflexive pronoun ends in -self or -selves and refers back to the subject of the same clause.

She taught herself to read sheet music over one summer.
The robots powered themselves down at midnight.

Reflexive pronouns: herself, themselves. They cannot be used as the subject of a sentence.

Verbs

A verb expresses an action, an event or a state of being. Verbs can be regular or irregular, and include auxiliary, modal, imperative and infinitive forms.

Regular verb

A regular verb forms its past tense and past participle by adding -ed (or -d) to the base form.

Yesterday the gardener planted forty bulbs along the fence.
They have walked this coastal path many times before.

Regular verbs: plant → planted, walk → walked.

Irregular verb

An irregular verb does not follow the -ed pattern; its past tense and past participle change in unpredictable ways.

She brought a torch because the power had gone out.
The river froze solid and the children ran across it.

Irregular verbs: bring → brought, go → gone, freeze → froze, run → ran.

Auxiliary (helping) verb

An auxiliary verb (be, have, do) is used with a main verb to form tenses, questions or negatives.

The engineers are testing the new bridge before it opens.
Did the postman deliver the parcel to the wrong house again?

Auxiliaries: are (with testing), did (with deliver).

Imperative verb

An imperative verb gives a command, instruction or request, and usually begins the sentence with the subject "you" understood.

Stir the mixture gently until the sugar dissolves.
Please close the gate so the sheep cannot escape.

Imperatives: Stir, close. Common in instructions and recipes.

Infinitive

The infinitive is the base form of a verb, usually preceded by "to", and does not show tense by itself.

She wanted to learn the violin before she turned thirteen.
To finish the marathon was his only goal that morning.

Infinitives: to learn, To finish. The "to" form contrasts with finite, tensed verbs.

Adjectives

An adjective describes or modifies a noun or pronoun, giving information about its qualities.

Adjective

An adjective adds detail to a noun or pronoun, describing qualities such as size, colour, number or opinion. Comparative (-er / more) and superlative (-est / most) forms compare things.

A thick, grey fog swallowed the narrow lane completely.
This is the steepest hill on the entire route, and the longest.

Adjectives: thick, grey, narrow (describing nouns); steepest and longest are superlatives.

Adverbs

An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb, often telling how, when, where or to what degree.

Adverb

An adverb modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb, showing manner, time, place, frequency or degree. Many (but not all) end in -ly.

The cat crept silently along the top of the fence.
We almost never visit the museum, although it is nearby.

Adverbs: silently (manner), almost and never (degree/frequency), nearby (place).

Prepositions

A preposition shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word, often in terms of place, time or direction.

Preposition

A preposition links a noun or pronoun to the rest of the sentence, indicating position, time, direction or means (for example in, on, under, before, through).

The keys were hidden beneath a loose tile near the door.
We waited on the platform until after midnight.

Prepositions: beneath, near (place), on, until, after (place/time).

Conjunctions

A conjunction joins words, phrases or clauses. Coordinating conjunctions join equal parts; subordinating conjunctions begin a dependent clause.

Coordinating conjunction

A coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) joins two words, phrases or clauses of equal grammatical weight.

The lamp flickered, but the room stayed warm.
You can take the bus or walk along the canal.

Coordinating conjunctions: but, or. Remember the set with FANBOYS.

Subordinating conjunction

A subordinating conjunction (because, although, while, if, when, since, unless) introduces a subordinate clause and links it to a main clause.

Although the path was icy, the postwoman kept her pace.
We will cancel the trip if the river rises any higher.

Subordinating conjunctions: Although, if. The clause they begin cannot stand alone.

Determiners

A determiner comes before a noun to clarify what the noun refers to - including articles, demonstratives, possessives and quantifiers.

Determiner

A determiner introduces a noun and specifies which or how many: articles (a, an, the), demonstratives (this, those), possessives (my, their) and quantifiers (some, several, many).

Those engineers checked several cables before the storm arrived.
My neighbour lent me an old map and some rope.

Determiners: Those, several, the, My, an, some.

Sentence types

Varying your sentence types - and recognising them in unseen texts - is rewarded across both the reading and writing marks.

Simple sentence

A simple sentence has one main (independent) clause containing a single subject and verb, and expresses one complete idea.

The alarm rang.
Three exhausted climbers reached the summit at dawn.

When to use

Use a short simple sentence for clarity, emphasis or to create tension and pace, especially after a longer sentence.

Compound sentence

A compound sentence joins two or more main clauses of equal weight using a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so) or a semicolon.

The tide was rising, so we hurried back across the sand.
She knocked twice; nobody answered.

When to use

Use a compound sentence to balance two related ideas of equal importance or to show contrast and consequence.

Complex sentence

A complex sentence has one main clause and at least one subordinate clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun.

Because the lift was broken, the visitors climbed nine flights of stairs.
The detective, who never missed a detail, noticed the open window.

When to use

Use a complex sentence to develop ideas, add detail or show how ideas relate; vary the position of the subordinate clause for effect.

Minor sentence

A minor sentence is a deliberately incomplete sentence (lacking a main verb or subject) used for effect; it is grammatically irregular but communicatively complete.

Silence.
No way back now.

When to use

Use a minor sentence sparingly in narrative or persuasive writing for dramatic emphasis or a punchy, conversational tone - not in formal writing.

Punctuation

The spec names five marks you must use with accuracy and confidence (flagged below). The remaining marks lift accurate writing to a more sophisticated level.

Capital letters

Spec-named

Use a capital letter to start every sentence, for the pronoun "I", and for proper nouns (names of people, places, days, months, titles).

On Friday, Amara and I drove north towards the Lake District.

Common error: Capitalising common nouns for emphasis (e.g. "my School"), or forgetting the capital after a full stop.

End punctuation (. ? !)

Spec-named

End a statement with a full stop, a direct question with a question mark, and an exclamatory or forceful utterance with an exclamation mark.

Did you lock the shed? I am certain I did. Watch out!

Common error: Using a comma where a sentence should end (a comma splice) instead of a full stop or semicolon.

Commas

Spec-named

Use commas to separate items in a list, to mark off a subordinate clause or a fronted adverbial, and to enclose extra (parenthetical) information.

After the storm, the volunteers, who had worked all night, cleared the road.

Common error: The comma splice - joining two complete sentences with only a comma, e.g. "It rained, we stayed in."

Speech marks (inverted commas)

Spec-named

Enclose the exact words spoken in speech marks; the punctuation that belongs to the spoken words sits inside the closing mark, and a new speaker starts a new line.

“Stay close to the wall,” the guide warned.

Common error: Putting the comma or full stop outside the speech marks, or forgetting to start a new line for a new speaker.

Apostrophes

Spec-named

Use an apostrophe for omission in contractions (do not → don’t) and for possession (the dog’s lead; the girls’ team).

It’s clear that the witness’s account changed the jury’s mind.

Common error: Confusing "its" (possessive) with "it’s" (it is), and adding an apostrophe to ordinary plurals (e.g. "apple’s for sale").

Colon

Use a colon to introduce a list, an explanation or an example, where what follows expands on the complete clause before it.

The expedition needed three things: rope, water and a reliable map.

Common error: Using a colon after an incomplete clause, e.g. "The things we need are: rope, water…".

Semicolon

Use a semicolon to link two closely related independent clauses without a conjunction, or to separate complex list items that already contain commas.

The path was washed away; the bridge was the only way across.

Common error: Using a semicolon where a comma belongs, or joining a fragment to a clause with one.

Dash

Use a pair of dashes to enclose an interruption or aside, or a single dash to add a dramatic afterthought or summary.

The cellar held one thing - and it was not the treasure they expected.

Common error: Overusing dashes in place of all other punctuation, which makes writing feel breathless.

Brackets (parentheses)

Use brackets to enclose extra information or a clarification that the sentence would still make sense without.

The festival (now in its tenth year) attracted record crowds.

Common error: Forgetting the closing bracket, or placing essential information inside brackets where it should not be optional.

Ellipsis

Use an ellipsis (three dots) to show an unfinished thought, a trailing pause, or words omitted from a quotation.

She opened the door slowly, expecting the worst …

Common error: Using more than three dots, or using an ellipsis to end every sentence for effect, which weakens its impact.

UK spelling traps

Thirty words that regularly cost marks. Spellings follow UK English conventions; learn the memory tip, then test yourself.

Word	Why it’s tricky	Memory tip
separate	Often misspelled "seperate" - the unstressed middle vowel sounds like "er".	There is "a rat" in sep-a-rat-e.
definitely	Frequently written "definately"; the vowel before "ly" is an i, not an a.	There is no "a" - it contains the word "finite".
necessary	The single c and double s are easy to swap.	One Collar, two Socks: one c, two s.
accommodate	Needs double c and double m, which are often dropped.	It is big enough to accommodate two c’s and two m’s.
embarrass	Double r and double s are commonly reduced to single letters.	You go really red and seriously stressed: double r, double s.
rhythm	No obvious vowels; the silent h after the r is missed.	Rhythm Helps Your Two Hips Move.
occasion	Double c but only a single s - the reverse is a common error.	Two c’s but only one s for the occasion.
beginning	The n is doubled before -ing because the stress is on the final syllable.	Be-GIN-ning: stressed last syllable means double the n.
believe	The i/e order is easily reversed.	Never beLIEve a LIE - the lie is in the middle.
weird	Breaks the "i before e" guide, so it looks wrong when correct.	It is weird, so it is spelled the weird way: e before i.
conscience	The "sci" cluster makes an unexpected "sh" sound.	Your conscience is science with a con in front.
government	The first n is silent and often dropped.	A government should govern - keep the "n" you can hear in "govern".
February	The first r is rarely pronounced and so gets left out.	Remember Feb-ROO-ary: there is an r before the u.
Wednesday	The d is silent in speech.	Say it in your head as "Wed-nes-day" to keep the d.
colleague	The double l and the silent -ue ending are easy to miss.	A colleague is in your league - keep "league" at the end.
privilege	Contains no d and no t, despite sounding like it might.	It is vile to lose a privilege - spot "vile" inside (privi-lege).
definite	Often spelled with an a; the ending is "-ite".	A "finite" thing is definite - both end "-ite".
lightning	Confused with "lightening" (making lighter); the weather word has no e.	Lightning strikes fast - it is too quick for an extra "e".
argument	The e of "argue" is dropped before -ment.	You lose the "e" when you start an argument.
queue	Four silent letters after the q make it look odd.	Q with a queue waiting behind it: just one letter, then "ueue".
tomorrow	One m but double r - frequently reversed.	Tomorrow you will row, row: one m, two r’s.
disappear	One s, double p - the opposite is a common error.	Dis + appear: "appear" still has its double p when it disappears.
until	Only one l, unlike "till" or "fulfil" assumptions.	Wait until - just one l at the end.
forty	Drops the u of "four", unlike "fourteen".	There is no "u" in forty, even though there is in four.
truly	Drops the e of "true" before -ly.	Truly loses the "e" - it is true.
foreign	The "eig" breaks the i-before-e guide and the g is silent.	A foreign reign: both have "eig".
mischievous	Often given an extra i ("mischievious"); there are only three syllables.	Mis-chie-vous: no "i" before the final "ous".
pronunciation	Differs from "pronounce" - there is no "ou" in the middle.	You pro-NUN-ciate it: keep "nun", drop the "ou" of pronounce.
recommend	One c, double m - frequently reversed.	Re + commend: "commend" keeps its single c and double m.
parliament	The hidden "ia" before the m is often missed.	Parliament has "I AM" hidden inside: parl-IA-ment.

Self-test

Twenty mixed questions. Decide your answer first, then open the reveal to check it.

Q1Name the word class of the underlined word: "The hikers walked QUICKLY before the storm broke."RevealIdentify the word class

Answer: Adverb - "quickly" modifies the verb "walked", describing how they walked.

Q2Name the word class of the underlined word: "She MUST finish the report before noon."RevealIdentify the word class

Answer: Modal verb - "must" expresses obligation and is followed by the base verb "finish".

Q3Name the word class of the underlined word: "A FLOCK of geese landed on the pond."RevealIdentify the word class

Answer: Collective noun - "flock" names a group treated as one unit.

Q4Name the word class of the underlined word: "We waited BENEATH the bridge."RevealIdentify the word class

Answer: Preposition - "beneath" shows the position of "we" in relation to the bridge.

Q5Name the word class of the underlined word: "ALTHOUGH it was late, they kept working."RevealIdentify the word class

Answer: Subordinating conjunction - "although" introduces a subordinate clause.

Q6Name the word class of the underlined word: "Those keys are MINE."RevealIdentify the word class

Answer: Possessive pronoun - "mine" shows ownership and stands alone (no apostrophe).

Q7Is "Stir the sauce gently" a command? Name the class of "Stir".RevealIdentify the word class

Answer: Yes - it is a command. "Stir" is an imperative verb (the subject "you" is understood).

Q8Name the word class of the underlined word: "She wanted TO LEARN Arabic."RevealIdentify the word class

Answer: Infinitive - "to learn" is the base form of the verb preceded by "to".

Q9Regular or irregular verb? "The vase BROKE when it fell."RevealIdentify the word class

Answer: Irregular verb - "break" becomes "broke" (it does not add -ed).

Q10Name the word class of the underlined word: "SEVERAL volunteers arrived early."RevealIdentify the word class

Answer: Determiner (a quantifier) - "several" comes before the noun and tells how many.

Q11Fix the punctuation: It was raining, we cancelled the match.RevealFix the punctuation

Answer: Comma splice. Correct: "It was raining, so we cancelled the match." or "It was raining; we cancelled the match."

Q12Fix the punctuation: The dogs lead was on the hook.RevealFix the punctuation

Answer: Missing possessive apostrophe: "The dog’s lead was on the hook." (one dog).

Q13Fix the punctuation: "Wait here" she said.RevealFix the punctuation

Answer: A comma is needed inside the speech marks: “Wait here,” she said.

Q14Fix the punctuation: Its going to be a long night.RevealFix the punctuation

Answer: "Its" should be "It’s" (a contraction of "it is"): "It’s going to be a long night."

Q15Fix the punctuation: We packed the essentials, rope, water and a map.RevealFix the punctuation

Answer: Use a colon to introduce the list: "We packed the essentials: rope, water and a map."

Q16Fix the punctuation: on monday we visited the science museum in london.RevealFix the punctuation

Answer: Capital letters needed: "On Monday we visited the Science Museum in London." (sentence start and proper nouns).

Q17Fix the punctuation: The bridge was closed the river was the only way across.RevealFix the punctuation

Answer: Two independent clauses run together. Use a semicolon or full stop: "The bridge was closed; the river was the only way across."

Q18Correct the spelling: They could not seperate the twins.RevealCorrect the spelling

Answer: "seperate" → "separate" (there is "a rat" in sep-a-rat-e).

Q19Correct the spelling: It was definately the right choice.RevealCorrect the spelling

Answer: "definately" → "definitely" (it contains "finite").

Q20Correct the spelling: A hotel big enough to accomodate the whole team is neccessary.RevealCorrect the spelling

Answer: "accomodate" → "accommodate" (double c, double m); "neccessary" → "necessary" (one c, two s).

Home · KS3 · iLowerSecondary English · Grammar lab

Grammar lab

Why this matters

For your writing

WAO2 (17.1% of the qualification): Communicate meaning in writing through the use of accurate grammar, punctuation and spelling.

Use a range of sentences and sentence openings for effect and impact.
Use synonyms to achieve cohesion and clarity in writing.
Select a range of vocabulary for clarity and specific impact.
Use capital letters, end punctuation, commas, speech marks and apostrophes correctly, with accuracy and confidence, for effect and impact.
Spell largely accurately with only occasional errors in less common words.

For your reading

RAO4 (18.6% of the qualification): Explore writers' use of grammatical and literary language at word and sentence level.

W9.3J - Use a wide range of grammatical terminology correctly and with confidence.

Word classes

Every word in English belongs to a word class. Naming them precisely is the foundation of analysing a writer’s choices and controlling your own sentences.

Nouns

A noun names a person, place, thing, idea or feeling. Nouns can be common, proper, abstract or collective.

Common noun

A common noun names a general type of person, place or thing rather than a specific one, and is not capitalised unless it begins a sentence.

The librarian stacked every returned book onto a wooden trolley.
A cold wind chased the leaves across the empty playground.

Common nouns here: librarian, book, trolley, wind, leaves, playground.

Proper noun

A proper noun names one specific person, place, organisation or title and always begins with a capital letter.

Priya travelled from Manchester to visit the British Library on Saturday.
The charity Riverwatch cleaned the banks of the River Tame in March.

Proper nouns: Priya, Manchester, British Library, Saturday, Riverwatch, River Tame, March.

Abstract noun

An abstract noun names something that cannot be touched or seen, such as an idea, quality, state or emotion.

Her courage during the storm earned the crew’s lasting respect.
Honesty matters more to him than the comfort of an easy answer.

Abstract nouns: courage, respect, honesty, comfort.

Collective noun

A collective noun names a group of people, animals or things considered as a single unit.

A flock of starlings twisted above the harbour like dark smoke.
The committee finally agreed on a single date for the fair.

Collective nouns: flock, committee. They usually take a singular verb in UK English when treated as one unit.

Pronouns

A pronoun stands in place of a noun to avoid repetition. Types include personal, possessive, relative, demonstrative and reflexive.

Personal pronoun

A personal pronoun replaces the name of a person or thing (for example I, you, he, she, it, we, they).

When Daniel finished the race, he could barely lift his arms.
The twins laughed because they had given identical answers.

Personal pronouns: he, they (replacing Daniel and the twins).

Possessive pronoun

A possessive pronoun shows ownership and stands alone without a following noun (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs).

That muddy bicycle by the gate is definitely mine.
We compared the two essays and decided ours was clearer.

Possessive pronouns: mine, ours. Note: no apostrophe is ever used in these words.

Relative pronoun

A relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that) introduces a relative clause that gives more information about a noun.

The scientist who discovered the leak alerted the whole village.
I returned the umbrella that I had borrowed last winter.

Relative pronouns: who, that. Use "who" for people and "which" for things; "that" works for either in defining clauses.

Reflexive pronoun

A reflexive pronoun ends in -self or -selves and refers back to the subject of the same clause.

She taught herself to read sheet music over one summer.
The robots powered themselves down at midnight.

Reflexive pronouns: herself, themselves. They cannot be used as the subject of a sentence.

Verbs

A verb expresses an action, an event or a state of being. Verbs can be regular or irregular, and include auxiliary, modal, imperative and infinitive forms.

Regular verb

A regular verb forms its past tense and past participle by adding -ed (or -d) to the base form.

Yesterday the gardener planted forty bulbs along the fence.
They have walked this coastal path many times before.

Regular verbs: plant → planted, walk → walked.

Irregular verb

An irregular verb does not follow the -ed pattern; its past tense and past participle change in unpredictable ways.

She brought a torch because the power had gone out.
The river froze solid and the children ran across it.

Irregular verbs: bring → brought, go → gone, freeze → froze, run → ran.

Auxiliary (helping) verb

An auxiliary verb (be, have, do) is used with a main verb to form tenses, questions or negatives.

The engineers are testing the new bridge before it opens.
Did the postman deliver the parcel to the wrong house again?

Auxiliaries: are (with testing), did (with deliver).

Imperative verb

An imperative verb gives a command, instruction or request, and usually begins the sentence with the subject "you" understood.

Stir the mixture gently until the sugar dissolves.
Please close the gate so the sheep cannot escape.

Imperatives: Stir, close. Common in instructions and recipes.

Infinitive

The infinitive is the base form of a verb, usually preceded by "to", and does not show tense by itself.

She wanted to learn the violin before she turned thirteen.
To finish the marathon was his only goal that morning.

Infinitives: to learn, To finish. The "to" form contrasts with finite, tensed verbs.

Adjectives

An adjective describes or modifies a noun or pronoun, giving information about its qualities.

Adjective

An adjective adds detail to a noun or pronoun, describing qualities such as size, colour, number or opinion. Comparative (-er / more) and superlative (-est / most) forms compare things.

A thick, grey fog swallowed the narrow lane completely.
This is the steepest hill on the entire route, and the longest.

Adjectives: thick, grey, narrow (describing nouns); steepest and longest are superlatives.

Adverbs

An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb, often telling how, when, where or to what degree.

Adverb

An adverb modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb, showing manner, time, place, frequency or degree. Many (but not all) end in -ly.

The cat crept silently along the top of the fence.
We almost never visit the museum, although it is nearby.

Adverbs: silently (manner), almost and never (degree/frequency), nearby (place).

Prepositions

A preposition shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word, often in terms of place, time or direction.

Preposition

A preposition links a noun or pronoun to the rest of the sentence, indicating position, time, direction or means (for example in, on, under, before, through).

The keys were hidden beneath a loose tile near the door.
We waited on the platform until after midnight.

Prepositions: beneath, near (place), on, until, after (place/time).

Conjunctions

A conjunction joins words, phrases or clauses. Coordinating conjunctions join equal parts; subordinating conjunctions begin a dependent clause.

Coordinating conjunction

A coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) joins two words, phrases or clauses of equal grammatical weight.

The lamp flickered, but the room stayed warm.
You can take the bus or walk along the canal.

Coordinating conjunctions: but, or. Remember the set with FANBOYS.

Subordinating conjunction

A subordinating conjunction (because, although, while, if, when, since, unless) introduces a subordinate clause and links it to a main clause.

Although the path was icy, the postwoman kept her pace.
We will cancel the trip if the river rises any higher.

Subordinating conjunctions: Although, if. The clause they begin cannot stand alone.

Determiners

A determiner comes before a noun to clarify what the noun refers to - including articles, demonstratives, possessives and quantifiers.

Determiner

A determiner introduces a noun and specifies which or how many: articles (a, an, the), demonstratives (this, those), possessives (my, their) and quantifiers (some, several, many).

Those engineers checked several cables before the storm arrived.
My neighbour lent me an old map and some rope.

Determiners: Those, several, the, My, an, some.

Sentence types

Varying your sentence types - and recognising them in unseen texts - is rewarded across both the reading and writing marks.

Simple sentence

A simple sentence has one main (independent) clause containing a single subject and verb, and expresses one complete idea.

The alarm rang.
Three exhausted climbers reached the summit at dawn.

When to use

Use a short simple sentence for clarity, emphasis or to create tension and pace, especially after a longer sentence.

Compound sentence

A compound sentence joins two or more main clauses of equal weight using a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so) or a semicolon.

The tide was rising, so we hurried back across the sand.
She knocked twice; nobody answered.

When to use

Use a compound sentence to balance two related ideas of equal importance or to show contrast and consequence.

Complex sentence

A complex sentence has one main clause and at least one subordinate clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun.

Because the lift was broken, the visitors climbed nine flights of stairs.
The detective, who never missed a detail, noticed the open window.

When to use

Use a complex sentence to develop ideas, add detail or show how ideas relate; vary the position of the subordinate clause for effect.

Minor sentence

A minor sentence is a deliberately incomplete sentence (lacking a main verb or subject) used for effect; it is grammatically irregular but communicatively complete.

Silence.
No way back now.

When to use

Use a minor sentence sparingly in narrative or persuasive writing for dramatic emphasis or a punchy, conversational tone - not in formal writing.

Punctuation

The spec names five marks you must use with accuracy and confidence (flagged below). The remaining marks lift accurate writing to a more sophisticated level.

Capital letters

Spec-named

Use a capital letter to start every sentence, for the pronoun "I", and for proper nouns (names of people, places, days, months, titles).

On Friday, Amara and I drove north towards the Lake District.

Common error: Capitalising common nouns for emphasis (e.g. "my School"), or forgetting the capital after a full stop.

End punctuation (. ? !)

Spec-named

End a statement with a full stop, a direct question with a question mark, and an exclamatory or forceful utterance with an exclamation mark.

Did you lock the shed? I am certain I did. Watch out!

Common error: Using a comma where a sentence should end (a comma splice) instead of a full stop or semicolon.

Commas

Spec-named

Use commas to separate items in a list, to mark off a subordinate clause or a fronted adverbial, and to enclose extra (parenthetical) information.

After the storm, the volunteers, who had worked all night, cleared the road.

Common error: The comma splice - joining two complete sentences with only a comma, e.g. "It rained, we stayed in."

Speech marks (inverted commas)

Spec-named

Enclose the exact words spoken in speech marks; the punctuation that belongs to the spoken words sits inside the closing mark, and a new speaker starts a new line.

“Stay close to the wall,” the guide warned.

Common error: Putting the comma or full stop outside the speech marks, or forgetting to start a new line for a new speaker.

Apostrophes

Spec-named

Use an apostrophe for omission in contractions (do not → don’t) and for possession (the dog’s lead; the girls’ team).

It’s clear that the witness’s account changed the jury’s mind.

Common error: Confusing "its" (possessive) with "it’s" (it is), and adding an apostrophe to ordinary plurals (e.g. "apple’s for sale").

Colon

Use a colon to introduce a list, an explanation or an example, where what follows expands on the complete clause before it.

The expedition needed three things: rope, water and a reliable map.

Common error: Using a colon after an incomplete clause, e.g. "The things we need are: rope, water…".

Semicolon

Use a semicolon to link two closely related independent clauses without a conjunction, or to separate complex list items that already contain commas.

The path was washed away; the bridge was the only way across.

Common error: Using a semicolon where a comma belongs, or joining a fragment to a clause with one.

Dash

Use a pair of dashes to enclose an interruption or aside, or a single dash to add a dramatic afterthought or summary.

The cellar held one thing - and it was not the treasure they expected.

Common error: Overusing dashes in place of all other punctuation, which makes writing feel breathless.

Brackets (parentheses)

Use brackets to enclose extra information or a clarification that the sentence would still make sense without.

The festival (now in its tenth year) attracted record crowds.

Common error: Forgetting the closing bracket, or placing essential information inside brackets where it should not be optional.

Ellipsis

Use an ellipsis (three dots) to show an unfinished thought, a trailing pause, or words omitted from a quotation.

She opened the door slowly, expecting the worst …

Common error: Using more than three dots, or using an ellipsis to end every sentence for effect, which weakens its impact.

UK spelling traps

Thirty words that regularly cost marks. Spellings follow UK English conventions; learn the memory tip, then test yourself.

Word	Why it’s tricky	Memory tip
separate	Often misspelled "seperate" - the unstressed middle vowel sounds like "er".	There is "a rat" in sep-a-rat-e.
definitely	Frequently written "definately"; the vowel before "ly" is an i, not an a.	There is no "a" - it contains the word "finite".
necessary	The single c and double s are easy to swap.	One Collar, two Socks: one c, two s.
accommodate	Needs double c and double m, which are often dropped.	It is big enough to accommodate two c’s and two m’s.
embarrass	Double r and double s are commonly reduced to single letters.	You go really red and seriously stressed: double r, double s.
rhythm	No obvious vowels; the silent h after the r is missed.	Rhythm Helps Your Two Hips Move.
occasion	Double c but only a single s - the reverse is a common error.	Two c’s but only one s for the occasion.
beginning	The n is doubled before -ing because the stress is on the final syllable.	Be-GIN-ning: stressed last syllable means double the n.
believe	The i/e order is easily reversed.	Never beLIEve a LIE - the lie is in the middle.
weird	Breaks the "i before e" guide, so it looks wrong when correct.	It is weird, so it is spelled the weird way: e before i.
conscience	The "sci" cluster makes an unexpected "sh" sound.	Your conscience is science with a con in front.
government	The first n is silent and often dropped.	A government should govern - keep the "n" you can hear in "govern".
February	The first r is rarely pronounced and so gets left out.	Remember Feb-ROO-ary: there is an r before the u.
Wednesday	The d is silent in speech.	Say it in your head as "Wed-nes-day" to keep the d.
colleague	The double l and the silent -ue ending are easy to miss.	A colleague is in your league - keep "league" at the end.
privilege	Contains no d and no t, despite sounding like it might.	It is vile to lose a privilege - spot "vile" inside (privi-lege).
definite	Often spelled with an a; the ending is "-ite".	A "finite" thing is definite - both end "-ite".
lightning	Confused with "lightening" (making lighter); the weather word has no e.	Lightning strikes fast - it is too quick for an extra "e".
argument	The e of "argue" is dropped before -ment.	You lose the "e" when you start an argument.
queue	Four silent letters after the q make it look odd.	Q with a queue waiting behind it: just one letter, then "ueue".
tomorrow	One m but double r - frequently reversed.	Tomorrow you will row, row: one m, two r’s.
disappear	One s, double p - the opposite is a common error.	Dis + appear: "appear" still has its double p when it disappears.
until	Only one l, unlike "till" or "fulfil" assumptions.	Wait until - just one l at the end.
forty	Drops the u of "four", unlike "fourteen".	There is no "u" in forty, even though there is in four.
truly	Drops the e of "true" before -ly.	Truly loses the "e" - it is true.
foreign	The "eig" breaks the i-before-e guide and the g is silent.	A foreign reign: both have "eig".
mischievous	Often given an extra i ("mischievious"); there are only three syllables.	Mis-chie-vous: no "i" before the final "ous".
pronunciation	Differs from "pronounce" - there is no "ou" in the middle.	You pro-NUN-ciate it: keep "nun", drop the "ou" of pronounce.
recommend	One c, double m - frequently reversed.	Re + commend: "commend" keeps its single c and double m.
parliament	The hidden "ia" before the m is often missed.	Parliament has "I AM" hidden inside: parl-IA-ment.